Operant Conditioning Theory

Psychologist B.F. Skinner 

Operant conditioning (sometimes referred to as instrumental conditioning) is a method of learning that occurs through rewards and punishments for behavior. Through operant conditioning, an association is made between a behavior and a consequence for that behavior.

Operant conditioning was coined by behaviorist B.F. Skinner, which is why you may occasionally hear it referred to as Skinnerian conditioning. As a behaviorist, Skinner believed that internal thoughts and motivations could not be used to explain behavior. Instead, he suggested, we should look only at the external, observable causes of human behavior.

Skinner used the term operant to refer to any "active behavior that operates upon the environment to generate consequences" (1953). In other words, Skinner's theory explained how we acquire the range of learned behaviors we exhibit each and every day.

Examples of Operant Conditioning

We can find examples of operant conditioning at work all around us. Consider the case of children completing homework to earn a reward from a parent or teacher, or employees finishing projects to receive praise or promotions.

In these examples, the promise or possibility of rewards causes an increase in behavior, but operant conditioning can also be used to decrease a behavior. The removal of an undesirable outcome or the use of punishment can be used to decrease or prevent undesirable behaviors. For example, a child may be told they will lose recess privileges if they talk out of turn in class. This potential for punishment may lead to a decrease in disruptive behaviors.

Components of Operant Conditioning

Some key concepts in operant conditioning:

• A reinforcer is any event that strengthens or increases the behavior it follows. There are two kinds of reinforcers:
1. Positive reinforcers are favorable events or outcomes that are presented after the behavior. In situations that reflect positive reinforcement, a response or behavior is strengthened by the addition of something, such as praise or a direct reward.
2. Negative reinforcers involve the removal of an unfavorable events or outcomes after the display of a behavior. In these situations, a response is strengthened by the removal of something considered unpleasant.

In both of these cases of reinforcement, the behavior increases.

• Punishment, on the other hand, is the presentation of an adverse event or outcome that causes a decrease in the behavior it follows. There are two kinds of punishment:
1. Positive punishment, sometimes referred to as punishment by application, involves the presentation of an unfavorable event or outcome in order to weaken the response it follows.
2. Negative punishment, also known as punishment by removal, occurs when an favorable event or outcome is removed after a behavior occurs.

In both of these cases of punishment, the behavior decreases.

Operant Conditioning Examples
Examples of Positive Reinforcement 

We may continue to go to work each day because we receive a paycheck on a weekly or montly basis.   If we receive awards for writing short stories, we may be more likely to increase the frequency of writing short stories.  Receiving praise for our karaoke performances can increase how often we sing.  These are all examples of positive reinforcement.
Example of Negative Reinforcement
Imagine that you decided to open a window in your home.  However, you are not happy with the noise from the traffic.  Thus, you decide to turn on the radio and listen to music.  This makes the traffic noise less noticeable.  The frequency in which you turn on the radio when the window is open has increased.  This would be an example of negative reinforcement.  Turning on the radio has resulted in a decrease in the unpleasantness of the traffic noise. 
Example of Positive Punishment
An example of positive punishment is when the negative behavior of an employee decreases as the result of being criticized by a supervisior.
Example of Negative Punishment

An example of negative punishment is when the frequency in which an employee is late for work deceases as a result of losing the right to listen to music while he or she works. 
Negative Reinforcement vs. Punishment
It is important to not confuse negative reinforcement and punishment.  They are different.  Negative reinforcement involves an increase in a behavior.   In contrast, punishment involves a decrease in a behavior.

Drawbacks of Positive Reinforcement

Positive reinforcement may seem to be an ideal technique to increase certain postive behaviors.  Managers may be able to motivate employees using positive reinforcement techniques.  However, there can be some drawbacks.

First, the use of positive reinforcement techniques may result in people becoming more extrinsically motivated.  Extrinsic motivation may undermine creativity.  In Amabile's (1985) experiment, people were asked to write two poems.  Before writing the second poem, some people were given a questionnaire in which they were asked to rank the importance of some reasons for writing.  In one condition, these reflected extrinsic motivation.   In another condition, they reflected intrinsic motivation.   In the control condition, people did not received a questionnaire with reasons for writing.  The poems in the extrinsic-orientation condition were judged to be less creative, on the average, than the poems in the control condition.

Second, the ideal employee may be one who is intrinsically motivated and does not require constant supervision.  Intrinsically motivated employees may be less likely to be late.  They also may be more likely to excel at their jobs.  Thus, positive reinforcement techniques may not lead to ideal employees in a company.

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